The Battle of Issus 333 BCE

Following his victory at the Granicus, Alexander set about repatronizing the formerly Greek kingdom of Lydia.  For their quick submission, Alexander granted them their former constitution, and ordered a temple to Zeus to be constructed on a citadel as indicated by a thunderstorm over the royal palace -- the same spot where the last Lydian king, Croesus, was burned on a pyre by the father of the Persian Empire, Cyrus the Great.  Parmenion's brother, Asander, was appointed satrap.

Now Alexander turned his attention toward Ionia.  As with Lydia, Alexander committed himself to freeing the Ionian cities from tribute, establishing democracies and restoring their autonomy.   Not surprisingly, the democrats in the Ionian cities welcomed Alexander as a liberator, while the oligarchs brought in Persian garrisons into areas which they were in power.  In Ephesus, the oligarchs controlled the city, but upon Alexander's approach, the garrison fled and the people began executing the oligarchs.   Next was Miletus, where Alexander encountered his first resistance. 
The city of Miletus consisted of two parts, an outer city, which Alexander easily occupied, and an inner city which was well fortified.  Alexander employed his fleet, 160 vessels strong, to blockade the harbor.   He also positioned troops on the island of Lade, adjacent from Miletus across the harbor.  The Persian fleet, some 400 ships, were unable to provide relief to the embattled city, which fell to Alexander's siege engines.  Parmenion advised Alexander to engage the Persian fleet, but outnumbered nearly 3 to 1, Alexander decided instead that the fleet was a useless drain on his treasury and ordered it disbanded.  Had Athens sent reinforcements as requested, the decision may have been otherwise, but it was becoming very apparent that no significant aid from Greece would be forthcoming.    Since he couldn't defeat the fleet on sea, Alexander decided to defeat it on land, specifically by denying it a port of entry.  Over the next two years, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt would be conquered as a means to this end.

The last of the Ionian cities was the great Carian stronghold at Halicarnassus.   Memnon, defeated by Alexander at the Granicus, was now governor of lower Asia and admiral of the fleet.  Halicarnassus was strongly fortified, and Alexander constructed siege engines and began  working on undermining the city's defenses.   The besieged were less than cooperative, however, launching occasional sorties to destroy the siege equipment, inflicting casualties on the Macedonian army while doing so.   After one such attack, Alexander even had to ask for a truce to recover his dead from the battleground, perhaps the only time he deferred to an enemies superior position.   Alexander's primary goal was to preserve the city, dragging the siege out longer than otherwise would have been necessary, and declining to exploit several breaches.   Finally, Memnon judged his position untenable and set fire to Halicarnassus, himself and a garrison retiring to an island fortress in the harbor.  Failing to save the city, Alexander now made certain that it was thoroughly destroyed, leaving a garrison under the command of Ptolemy to reduce the fortress and to capture the remaining coastal cities.  Alexander placed Queen Ada as regent of Caria (a title she claimed as birthright); a move which facilitated the annexation of Caria.

Other satrapies in Asia Minor were brought into the Macedonian fold with little resistance.  The Lycian League capitulated, and its constitution of confederacy was left intact.  Alexander marched through Pamphylia and Pisidia, securing the coastal cities of southern Asia Minor enroute.  The army was split, with Parmenion taking a portion to Sardis for the winter, eventually recombining in the Phrygian capitol of Gordion.  At the citadel of Gordion lays the palaces of Gordius and Midas.  In another public relations move, Alexander visited the chariot of Gordius and the knot which fastened the yoke.  A well known oracle decreed that whomever could loosen the knot would be ruler of Asia.  After an unsuccessful attempt to untie the knot through conventional means, Alexander reportedly drew his sword, cutting the knot and fulfilling the terms of the oracle.

In spring of 333 BCE Alexander left Gordion and traveled south.  He had earlier received the submission of Paphlagonia, and throughout his march would assert control of Cappadocia.  At the Cilician Gates, Alexander found the pass defended by the satrap Arsames.  In a night maneuver, Alexander marched his hypaspists and light troops up to surprise the garrison, which fled upon hearing their approach.  Then, at the head of his cavalry, Alexander made a swift strike to take Tarsus.  So quick and sudden was this move that Arsames fled without a fight.

Darius had let Alexander have his way with Asia Minor, but was determined to stop him from going any farther.  Personally leading a vast army, he was crossing the Eurphrates when Parmenion brought his cavalry through the Cilician Gates to secure a passage into Syria.  Alexander took the the remainder of the army westward to subjugate Cilicia.

When Alexander passed through Issus, Darius had his army deployed on the plain of Sochoi, on the other side of Mount Amanus.  Darius' army was estimated at 600,000 strong, about 200,000 which were battle worthy and the remainder a liability.  The plain of Sochoi offered ample room for such an enormous army to maneuver, providing favorable ground for the Persian host.  Alexander headed south toward Myriandros, intending on passing though the Syrian Gates, leaving his sick and wounded in Issus.  

Delayed by severe weather as well as the conquest of Cilicia, Alexander did not appear on the plain of Sochoi as rapidly as Arsames had led Darius to believe.   Wondering what became of Alexander, Darius decided to abandon his position at Sochoi and traveled via the Amanic Gates north of Mount Amanus to Issus, where he tortured and executed the sick and wounded left behind.  To Alexander, this news was beyond belief...he left the men behind at Issus because for Darius to abandon his choice position on the Sochoi plain would represent a military blunder of inconceivable proportions.   Rather than a wide plain to bring his crushing numbers to bear, Darius instead put himself in position to defend the narrow plain of Issus, much to the advantage of the smaller  Macedonian army.

Darius had taken a defensive position on the bank of the river Pinarus, which bisected the battlefield.   As was the case at the Granicus, Alexander arrived on the battlefield and felt the Persian's had offered him the initiative.  Darius had deployed a mass of cavalry on his right flank, bordering the sea.  In the center was mercenary Greek hoplites, this time occupying a more sensible position on the bank of the river.  The left was held by oriental Kardakes, or  Cardaces.   The Pinarus had high banks along the sea, affording some protection to his cavalry, while the left near the mountain was easily fordable.

Alexander approached the battlefield with Parmenion on his left with the Greek cavalry, Craterus commanding the phalanx and infantry in the center, and himself with the Companions and Thessalonian cavalry on the right.  Upon reaching the plain of Issus, the Persian cavalry began crossing the Pinarus in vast numbers.  Seeing that Parmenion was in danger of being overwhelmed, Alexander dispatched the Thessalonians behind the phalanx to reinforce Parmenion.  Parmenion was to hold the line to the coast at any cost.

Alexander noticed immediately that the Cardaces on his right were being protected by archers, an uncustomary deployment unless one has little confidence in ones infantry.  He also knew that the oriental troops would be demoralized if he could put pressure on the Great King himself, who commanded from the center, well protected by the Greek hoplites.  To this end, his plan was to hammer the weak Persian left, circling behind the strong center and attacking from the rear.

The initial deployment placed the strength of each army on the right against the opponents weaker left.  Alexander remedied this situation by reinforcing Parmenion with the Thessalian cavalry.  Darius did nothing to attend to his weakness.  The river's course lent itself to Alexander's favorite approach, an oblique line, left refused.   Alexander himself would lead the charge across the river, driving a wedge between the Greek hoplites and the oriental Kardakes, straight into the flank of the Persian center.  By turning the left, or strategic flank (a move later perfected by Napoleon), the Persians would find their avenue of retreat cut off.  The entire plan hinged on Parmenion's ability to withstand the Persian cavalry charge.

The battle began with Alexander leading his Companions and the hypaspist agema double-time, crashing into Persian line left of center.  This move served several purposes -- its speed shocked the defenders and minimized the Macedonian exposure to missile fire.  The Persians could not withstand this result, all of Alexander's units were successful in this assault.  Next, the phalanx clashed with the Greek hoplites.   The Greeks held tough, killing Ptolemy and 120 of his phalangists.  Just as the phalanx was in danger of losing its "invincible" tag, Alexander, having penetrated deep into the Persian left,  detached with a brigade of hypaspists, shattering the Greek hoplite formation from the rear.

Meanwhile, Parmenion had his hands full with the mass of Persian cavalry.   The sheer weight of the attack made a steadfast defense impossible, instead, Parmenion attacked peripheral elements in the surge.  The Thessalian cavalry repeatedly broke and rallied, maintaining containment of the Persian salient.    The Persian cavalry took on the fluid nature of an avalanche, devastating everything in its path, but unable to maneuver in a decisive manner.

With the phalanx reformed and making headway, Alexander and his Companions drove toward the center of the Persian army, where Darius led from a golden chariot pulled by a team of four horses.  Just as the Battle of Cunaxa 68 years earlier, the battle would be won or lost at the site where the two leading protagonists met.  Alexander bore down on Darius, who at the last moment was screened by a charge led by his brother, Oxathres.  Darius fled.  Moments later, word had gotten to the oriental Cardaces that the king had quit the battle, taking this as a signal to leave.  The Agrianians, archers, and two ile of Companions pursued, cutting down those who could not run fast enough.  Alexander, the hypaspists, and the rest of the Companions enveloped the Persian center, inflicting terrible casualties on Persians and Greek mercenaries.   The Persian cavalry, hearing the call "The King flees", became unnerved and turned to flee.  Many were cut down by the pursuing Thessalonians, an estimated thousand more were trampled by their own mass, such was the density of the Persian cavalry.

Among the Persian dead were the generals Arsames, Rheomithres, and Atizyes.   A figure of one 100,000 dead, including 10,000 cavalry, is given as the Persian loss.  The Macedonian loss is listed at a mere 450,consisting of 300 foot and 150 horse.  Whether these extreme numbers are accurate cannot be proven, but a ratio of 10:1 is probably not unlikely.  A large sum of money was captured in the Persian camp, and vast stores of wealth were confiscated by Parmenion on a mission to Damascus to collect the contents of the Persian treasury (which was in the process of being removed by a dishonest satrap).   The spoils also included none other than the family of Darius himself, the queen and queen-mother, who were well cared for at the behest of Alexander.

Darius did not stop running until he crossed the Euphrates River.  The bravery of the Persian generals had been undermined by a king of weak character.  The Persian troops were skittish and reacted poorly to such actions.  The army which was so vast it would "trample the Macedonians under foot" had been broken, and it was now just a matter of time until the position of the Persian Empire as a world power would tumble as well.

Jeff Vitous

Further Reading and Illustration Credits

A History of Greece to the Death of Alexander the Great
J.B. Bury and Russell Meiggs
St. Martin's Press, 1980  ISBN 0 312 37940 4

Alexander
Theodore Ayrault Dodge
De Capo Press, 1996  ISBN 0 306 80690 8

In the Footsteps of Alexander the Great
Michael Wood
University of California Press, 1997  ISBN 0-520-21307-6

Warfare in the Classical World
John Warry
University of Oklahoma Press, 1995  ISBN 0-8061-2794-5

The Game

Favored Side:  Persian
Suitability for Solitaire:  Good as the Macedonian, Poor as the Persian. (Play the Macs and turn up the difficulty for a challenge)
Suitability for Multiplayer:  Poor for evenly skilled opponents, Good if there is a large disparity in player skill.

Strategy - Macedonian
Alexander can put a whole lot of hurt on the Persian left.  Do not be timid about crossing the river, also do not forget to restore cohesion once across.   Dispatching a hypaspist to aid the Agrianians against Rheomithres (beware, he is in the woods to your right, difficult to see in the game) can eliminate this minor threat on your flank.  Be wary of your phalanx being outflanked, if playing the computer, it will come after you, no need to be needlessly aggressive.  Expect Parmenion's cavalry to be hit hard, rally when you can, and try and run down routing Persians when the opportunity presents itself.  Alexander should concentrate at first routing the Cardaces, then, if necessary, hit the Greek hoplites.  As always, keep on the lookout for sniper opportunities with your archers.

Strategy - Persian
There is no reason to move your infantry into the river.  Position the Cardaces in a refuse flank and hope for the best, you have a vast reserve of skirmishers to place in harms way if and when they fail.  Do not risk the hoplites needlessly.  Your strength, obviously, is in your cavalry.  Use them to methodically eliminate Parmenion's cavalry, then circle behind the phalanx and watch it collapse.  Against the computer, an aggressive Macedonian AI should hand you a huge victory.

Notes
   1.  Greek hoplite units two-hex e HI and are listed as phalanx to distinguish them from standard HI.
  2. The Cardaces are two-hex LI units and are broken out separately.  As with other two-hex units, they count double rout points when eliminated.
  
   

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